Science Learning Environments : Assessment, Effects and Determinants - Barry J. Fraser
Why Use Short Forms Of Instruments - less scales and less items (about 25)
(a) less time to administer and score
(b) easy hand scoring
(c) adequately reliable for applications that require the class means
Perceptions of the whole class (average result) can be different from the individual's perception.
Stages In Improving Classroom Environments
(a) Assessment - Pupils' reponse to instrument
(b) Feedback to teacher on pupils' responses
(c) Reflection and Discussion by teachers
(d) Intevention
(e) Reassessment - to see if interventions brought any improvements
Additional Uses Of Instruments (add on to list in previous reading)
(a) Teacher education
(b) Teacher assessment
Thursday, December 6, 2007
Learning Environments Research : Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow
Learning Environments Research : Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow - Barry J. Fraser
Uses Of Classroom Environmental Instruments
(a) Association between students' cognitive and affective learning outcomes and their
perceptions of psychosocial characteristics of their classrooms.
(b) Source of process criteria in the evaluation of educational innovations (compare innovative
classes with control group using the items for psychosocial perceptions of their learning
environments
(c) Differences between student and teacher perceptions in the same actual classroom envt
(d) Differences between student preferred and actual perceptions of the classroom envt
(e) Scales in instruments used as criterion variables in research aimed at identifying how the
classroom envt varies with factors such as teacher personality, class size, grade level,
subject matter, nature of the school level envt and type of school.
(f) Qualitative instruments (observations, interviews, student diaries, open-ended questions in
questionnaires, etc) can replicate findings of quantititive questionnaires and clarifying replies
to the questionnaires
matter, nature of the school level envt and type of school.
(g) Enable cross-national studies which can highlight differences between practices in different
countries which can be questioned or used as a learning point for improvement
(h) Feedback from perception studies can be used to guide improvements in the classroom
environments
Uses Of Classroom Environmental Instruments
(a) Association between students' cognitive and affective learning outcomes and their
perceptions of psychosocial characteristics of their classrooms.
(b) Source of process criteria in the evaluation of educational innovations (compare innovative
classes with control group using the items for psychosocial perceptions of their learning
environments
(c) Differences between student and teacher perceptions in the same actual classroom envt
(d) Differences between student preferred and actual perceptions of the classroom envt
(e) Scales in instruments used as criterion variables in research aimed at identifying how the
classroom envt varies with factors such as teacher personality, class size, grade level,
subject matter, nature of the school level envt and type of school.
(f) Qualitative instruments (observations, interviews, student diaries, open-ended questions in
questionnaires, etc) can replicate findings of quantititive questionnaires and clarifying replies
to the questionnaires
matter, nature of the school level envt and type of school.
(g) Enable cross-national studies which can highlight differences between practices in different
countries which can be questioned or used as a learning point for improvement
(h) Feedback from perception studies can be used to guide improvements in the classroom
environments
New Learning Environments And Constructivism - The Student' Perspective
New learning envts and constructivism - The student's perspective - David Gijbel, et al
I did not do a review of the article but was more interested about the different types of learning envts and so picked up some points on that and recorded it here.
New Learning Envts
(a) Project-based education
(b) Case-based learning
(c) Problem-based learning
(d) Task oriented learning
(e) Practical work
(f) Work place laerning
(g) On-line learning
Features Of Problem-Based Learning
(a) Student centred
(b) Small student group under guidance of facilitator
(c) Tutor as facilitator
(d) Authentic problem
(e) Problems encountered used as a tool to achieve required knwledge and the problem solving
skills necessary to eventually solve the problem
(f) Self directed learning
Features That Can Enable The Constructive Building Of Knowledge
(a) Arguments, discussion, debates
(b) Conceptual conflicts and dilemmas
(c) Sharing ideas with others
(d) Material and resources targetted towards solutions
(e) Motivation towards reflections and concept investigations
(f) Meeting students' needs
(g) Making meaning, real-life examples
Reflection
PBL is a great tool but the problem is constructing an authentic problem. Many of us are not creative or knowledgable enough to create the problem which has all the dimension mentioned above. If MOE could build up resources that we could implement, more teachers would embark on these new learning envts.
If we used all the new learning envts mentioned above, then I will say we are a true educator and not just a person who dessiminates information. Learning would be so exciting. However, the type of learning you use must be suitable to the type of pupils you are teaching. Some of these methods are quite high leve and pupils would need a lot of scaffolding and hand-holding. But imagine the bebfits if we can train pupils to think for themselves.
However, even if we have the lesson plans or case studies, etc provided to us, that does not mean we would know how to implement them in an effective way that allows for maximum learning. These forms of learning require skills that teachers need to develop otherwise the lessons would just be a waste of time and degenerate into a chaotic mess.
I did not do a review of the article but was more interested about the different types of learning envts and so picked up some points on that and recorded it here.
New Learning Envts
(a) Project-based education
(b) Case-based learning
(c) Problem-based learning
(d) Task oriented learning
(e) Practical work
(f) Work place laerning
(g) On-line learning
Features Of Problem-Based Learning
(a) Student centred
(b) Small student group under guidance of facilitator
(c) Tutor as facilitator
(d) Authentic problem
(e) Problems encountered used as a tool to achieve required knwledge and the problem solving
skills necessary to eventually solve the problem
(f) Self directed learning
Features That Can Enable The Constructive Building Of Knowledge
(a) Arguments, discussion, debates
(b) Conceptual conflicts and dilemmas
(c) Sharing ideas with others
(d) Material and resources targetted towards solutions
(e) Motivation towards reflections and concept investigations
(f) Meeting students' needs
(g) Making meaning, real-life examples
Reflection
PBL is a great tool but the problem is constructing an authentic problem. Many of us are not creative or knowledgable enough to create the problem which has all the dimension mentioned above. If MOE could build up resources that we could implement, more teachers would embark on these new learning envts.
If we used all the new learning envts mentioned above, then I will say we are a true educator and not just a person who dessiminates information. Learning would be so exciting. However, the type of learning you use must be suitable to the type of pupils you are teaching. Some of these methods are quite high leve and pupils would need a lot of scaffolding and hand-holding. But imagine the bebfits if we can train pupils to think for themselves.
However, even if we have the lesson plans or case studies, etc provided to us, that does not mean we would know how to implement them in an effective way that allows for maximum learning. These forms of learning require skills that teachers need to develop otherwise the lessons would just be a waste of time and degenerate into a chaotic mess.
Wednesday, December 5, 2007
Classroom envt research : Progress & possibilities
Classroom environment research : Progress and possibilities - Jeffrey Dorman
Without consideraton of the crucial role of the psychosocial environment of classrooms, educational productivity cannot be optimised.
Historical perspective
Thomas - recorded explict classroom phenomena
Levin - huamn beh is a function of th perons and the environment
Murray - needs important determinants of beh within a person
- press of an object is what it can do to the subject - power to affect the well being of the subject
Pace - defined envt - overall atm, characteristics, kind of things that are rewarded, encouraged, emphasised, style of life which is valied by community and is most visibly expressed and felt
Stern -degree of person-envt congruence is related to student outcomes (the degree to which a pupil's needs is met will affect his beh)
Fraser - congruence between actual and preferred envts is assessed and related to student
outcomes
- development and validation of instruments to assess specific dimensions of the
classroom envts
Moos - three dimesions of human envt : R, P and S
Walberg - student perceptual data (collected by questionnaire) to determine if changes in teaching and learning affected the classroom climate - student judgements about classroom is a good indicator
Methodology
Quantitative - trained observers to code event (alpha press)
- student/teacher perceptions throught questonnaire (beta press)
Qualitative - ethnographic data collection methods
Previous Learning Envtal Research
(a) Development and validation of instruments - 9 genreal types
- several specific types for particular settings
(b) Effect on classroom envt of antecedent variables
(c) Use of envtal assessments in teacher education
Current Directions For Classroom Envt Research
(a) Multimedia learning envts
(b) Instrument development
(c) Introducing the study of learning envts in other countries
Future Directions For Classroom Envt Research
Without consideraton of the crucial role of the psychosocial environment of classrooms, educational productivity cannot be optimised.
Historical perspective
Thomas - recorded explict classroom phenomena
Levin - huamn beh is a function of th perons and the environment
Murray - needs important determinants of beh within a person
- press of an object is what it can do to the subject - power to affect the well being of the subject
Pace - defined envt - overall atm, characteristics, kind of things that are rewarded, encouraged, emphasised, style of life which is valied by community and is most visibly expressed and felt
Stern -degree of person-envt congruence is related to student outcomes (the degree to which a pupil's needs is met will affect his beh)
Fraser - congruence between actual and preferred envts is assessed and related to student
outcomes
- development and validation of instruments to assess specific dimensions of the
classroom envts
Moos - three dimesions of human envt : R, P and S
Walberg - student perceptual data (collected by questionnaire) to determine if changes in teaching and learning affected the classroom climate - student judgements about classroom is a good indicator
Methodology
Quantitative - trained observers to code event (alpha press)
- student/teacher perceptions throught questonnaire (beta press)
Qualitative - ethnographic data collection methods
Previous Learning Envtal Research
(a) Development and validation of instruments - 9 genreal types
- several specific types for particular settings
(b) Effect on classroom envt of antecedent variables
(c) Use of envtal assessments in teacher education
Current Directions For Classroom Envt Research
(a) Multimedia learning envts
(b) Instrument development
(c) Introducing the study of learning envts in other countries
Future Directions For Classroom Envt Research
(a) Provide more comprehensive evaluation of classrooms and school learning envts - include physical envt esp with the introduction of new technologies for a "smart nation" and "knowledge nation".
(b) Linking classroom envt with other learning envts (eg. home, out of school peer group, part time work) to get a more comprehensive understanding of student outcomes
(c) Embed classroom envt needs in large, comprehensive research projects
(d) More robust methods of data analysis
REFLECTIONS ON SESSION 5
Objectives for Session 5
(a) Evaluate the school learning environment through 3case studies
(b) How to use the software, SPSS, to analyse the data to determine if there is significant
difference between the preferred and actual perceptions for each scale in the questionnaire
(c) How to write a project report on the assessment of a learning environment
(d) Group assignment : To write a project report on the assessment of a learning environment
Reflections
We shared the group work carried out the previous day on assessing the school environment based on 3 case studies. There were some teachers who felt School A was a positive environment because of the strong discipline and emphasis on academic achievemnt. They felt that that were imprtant issues that needed to be put in place. I agree that discipline is an improtant issue. In fact I wrote on it in my second entry in Dr Quek's blog for session 1. Hoever, in this particular case study, I felt that the school had already established the discipline and academic results and that it was long overdue that they had stopped being one sidded in their education and had moved on to providing a holistic education and creating a nurturing environment. Both teachers and pupils were unhappy in the school and I felt that if the situation had continued on, before long, negative repercussions would start manifesting. Unfortunately, parents only see the good academic record and have no idea that the school environment was not one of learning and growing but of drilling for examinations only.
We then discussed the importance of Cronbach alpha coefficient and the paired sample T Test.
Cronbach alpha reliability
(1) To see if the items you use in the survey gives responses that are similar among all the
participants as well as in different situations.
(2) Why may the item not be reliable (have a low cronbach alpha reliability) :
(i) did not understand statement
(ii) interpretation of statement
(iii) may not be culturally suitable
Writing a report
Cover page
Abstract
Introduction
Lit review
Key words
Research questions - (i) learn more about the learning envt
- (ii) are the differences significant
Metodology - Sample size
- Instrument used
- Procedure
Findings - Tables - x3
Use only 3 lines in table
Table 1 : What the scales are about and what the items are
Table 2 : Cronbach's alpha reliability for each item (preferred and actual) for
each scale
Table 3 : Mean, Std dev and Item mean
- Line Graph -x1
(a) Item Mean against Items for both preferred and actual (2 line curves)
(b) Purpose of graph (i) study trend
(ii) see pre and post results for comparison
If there is no sig diff, add the 2 means and divide by 2 and get one point
If there is a sig diff, plot both means.
Analysis of results
Conclusion - main findings
- gaps to address
- recommendations
References -Book : Name of book in italics
- Journal : Name of article in journal in italics / Name of journal not in italics
Volume of journal in italics
Word, "page" or "pg" not used. Just write the number range
Report should be (a) 3-4 pages
(b) Spacing - 1.5
At first I wondered what was the point of writing a project report as report writing was our first module and this module was on classroom learning environment and not report writing. It was only later tonight, when I was writing the rationale for the group report that I realized that the point was not to teach us how to write a report but the report was the assessment product to detemine if
(a) we had read enough on the topic - Lit review
(b) we understood the meaning of learning environments and the importance of assessing the
learning environment so that we can create one that is the most conducive to pupils learning
as it meets the pupils' needs - Introduction, Rationale
(c) we know how to assess a learning environment
(i) know the methodology for assessing the learning environment - Sample size,
Instrument and Procedure
(ii) know how to use the software, SPSS, to find the Cronbach's apha coeeficient and the
paired sample T Test and understand their importance - Findings, Analysis
A great way to test our understanding instead of giving us the traditional test.
(a) Evaluate the school learning environment through 3case studies
(b) How to use the software, SPSS, to analyse the data to determine if there is significant
difference between the preferred and actual perceptions for each scale in the questionnaire
(c) How to write a project report on the assessment of a learning environment
(d) Group assignment : To write a project report on the assessment of a learning environment
Reflections
We shared the group work carried out the previous day on assessing the school environment based on 3 case studies. There were some teachers who felt School A was a positive environment because of the strong discipline and emphasis on academic achievemnt. They felt that that were imprtant issues that needed to be put in place. I agree that discipline is an improtant issue. In fact I wrote on it in my second entry in Dr Quek's blog for session 1. Hoever, in this particular case study, I felt that the school had already established the discipline and academic results and that it was long overdue that they had stopped being one sidded in their education and had moved on to providing a holistic education and creating a nurturing environment. Both teachers and pupils were unhappy in the school and I felt that if the situation had continued on, before long, negative repercussions would start manifesting. Unfortunately, parents only see the good academic record and have no idea that the school environment was not one of learning and growing but of drilling for examinations only.
We then discussed the importance of Cronbach alpha coefficient and the paired sample T Test.
Cronbach alpha reliability
(1) To see if the items you use in the survey gives responses that are similar among all the
participants as well as in different situations.
(2) Why may the item not be reliable (have a low cronbach alpha reliability) :
(i) did not understand statement
(ii) interpretation of statement
(iii) may not be culturally suitable
(3) Reliability above 0.5. However, 0.9 is not considered good as the item is too "ideal" and not realistic.
Paired Sample T Test
To determine if the difference between two samples (pre and post results) are significant or not. Significance level can be set at 95% or 97%. At 95% significance level, the hypothesis is that any result that gives a T test that is less than 0.05 means that the difference between the two samples is significant.
In terms of the assessment of the learning environment, T-test scores less than 0.05 for a 95% significance level means that the difference between the preferred and actual perceptions of the students is significant and so intervention measure should be planned and carried out to close this gap between preferred and actual so as to create a conducive learning environment.
Once the intervention measures are carried out, the survey should be done again to ensure that the intervention had been appropriate to address this area of concern.
The next step as to use the SPSS softare to calculate the paired sample T test for the survey we had carried out the previous day.
Dr Quek talked us through how to write a report using a sample report.
We then worked on our project. We used the data we collected and the analysis we had made over the 2 days and wrote a project report.
Writing a report
Cover page
Abstract
Introduction
Lit review
Key words
Research questions - (i) learn more about the learning envt
- (ii) are the differences significant
Metodology - Sample size
- Instrument used
- Procedure
Findings - Tables - x3
Use only 3 lines in table
Table 1 : What the scales are about and what the items are
Table 2 : Cronbach's alpha reliability for each item (preferred and actual) for
each scale
Table 3 : Mean, Std dev and Item mean
- Line Graph -x1
(a) Item Mean against Items for both preferred and actual (2 line curves)
(b) Purpose of graph (i) study trend
(ii) see pre and post results for comparison
If there is no sig diff, add the 2 means and divide by 2 and get one point
If there is a sig diff, plot both means.
Analysis of results
Conclusion - main findings
- gaps to address
- recommendations
References -Book : Name of book in italics
- Journal : Name of article in journal in italics / Name of journal not in italics
Volume of journal in italics
Word, "page" or "pg" not used. Just write the number range
Report should be (a) 3-4 pages
(b) Spacing - 1.5
At first I wondered what was the point of writing a project report as report writing was our first module and this module was on classroom learning environment and not report writing. It was only later tonight, when I was writing the rationale for the group report that I realized that the point was not to teach us how to write a report but the report was the assessment product to detemine if
(a) we had read enough on the topic - Lit review
(b) we understood the meaning of learning environments and the importance of assessing the
learning environment so that we can create one that is the most conducive to pupils learning
as it meets the pupils' needs - Introduction, Rationale
(c) we know how to assess a learning environment
(i) know the methodology for assessing the learning environment - Sample size,
Instrument and Procedure
(ii) know how to use the software, SPSS, to find the Cronbach's apha coeeficient and the
paired sample T Test and understand their importance - Findings, Analysis
A great way to test our understanding instead of giving us the traditional test.
REFLECTIONS ON SESSION 4
Objectives for Session 4
(a) Features of a learning environment assessment questionnaire
(b) Evaluate the school learning environment through case studies
(c) How to assess a classroom learning environment
(i) How to administer a survey on the learning environment
(ii) How to use a special template for recording and collating the data collected and to
calculate the means
(iii) How to use the software, SPSS, to analyse the data to determine if the scales in the
questionnaire are reliable using Cronbach reliability coefficient and find the means
Overview Of Lesson
We learnt how we can assess the learning environment using instruments/questionnaires. There are already validated instruments that we can modify to suit our requirements. We need not start from scratch and need not have to validate the instrument. We looked at one instrument, The School Level Environment Questionnaire (SLCEQ), in detail to learn the features needed to construct a questionnaire.
When constructing a questionnaire, we need to determine what scales we want to measure and ensure that they are aligned with Moo's schema.
In SLCEQ there are 9 scales.
Relationship - Student support / Affiliation
Personal development - Professional interest / Achievement orientaiton
System maintenance and system change - Staff freedom / Preparatory decision making /
Innovation / Resource adequacy / Work pressure
Each scale will be a block of an average of 4-5 items written in positive terms. There should not be too many questions in a questionnaire - 25 items is a good number. The Likert scale should have 4-5 responses that are arranged from the positive (strongly agree) to the negative (strongly disagree).
Analysis of the questionnaire using the software SPSS should be done scale by scale and separately for preferred and actual questionnaires for Cronbach's alpha coefficient.
We applied what we learnt by having a hands-on session. Everyone completed the preffered and actual questonaaire for WIHIC (What Is Happening In This Classroom), modified the data recording template given by Dr Quek to suit the questionnaire we used and analysed the data using the software, SPSS.
Reflections
Assessing the learning environment is very important if we want pupils to maximize their learning in our classrooms. The teacher's perception of her LE may not the same as those of the pupils. The only way to determine what aspectsof the learning environment are a problem and need to be adddressed through intervention measures is by getting feedback from the pupils, either qualitatively through a questionnaire with a Likert scale or qualitatively through interviews. Usually a combination of both is needed to identify the AFIs (areas for improvement) and to have a deeper understanding why those are as are identified as AFIs. However, there are two major problems with this :
(a) the teacher needs to know how to adminster such a survey and anlyse the results
(b) the teacher must be able to accept negative feedback and use it as a learning point for improvement instead of taking it as a criticism and feel hurt and diminished.
Where analysing the data is concerned, simple statistics need be used at the teacher's level. However, it is still possible that many teachers may find it difficult to overcome the barriers of having to key in so much data as well as to do statistics (it is an inhibiting word to many non-Mathematics persons). However, I still feel that even without the Cronberg's alpha coefficeint and t tests carried out, we can still get pupils to record their answers on the optical sheet (OTAS) and use the OTAS marker to collate the data. The percentages given by the OTAS marker software can be used to determine if an item is a strength or an area for improvement if we set a target eg. 80% and above is a strength and 60% and belwo is an AFI. uing this method will save time and thus result in more teachers being inclined to assess theri learning environment. I find using the SPSS software necessary when carrying out a research project like Action research.
Not many teachers are comfortable having pupils evaluate their learning environment. This year, in my school, teachers were encouraged to use pupil evaluation as a form of professional development. However, very few teachers chose to do it and the main reason was being confortable getting eedback from students.
However, it was good to learn that there are ready-made questionnaires for different learning environments that we need only to modify them to suit our situations. We can remove certain items or add a few items without having to validate the questionnaire. This will encourage teachers t be more inlcined to use surveys to assess their learning environments.
We also looked at three case studies to determine if the school had a positive learning environment. In determining these scales, we need to keep in mind Moo's scheme : Relationships (R), Personal development (PD) and System maintenance and system change (SMSC).
Cronbach alpha reliability -
did not understand statement
interpretation of statement
may not be culturally suitable
Cronbach Alpha Coefficient
Cronbach's alpha measures how well a set of items (or variables) measures a single unidimensional latent construct. When data have a multidimensional structure, Cronbach's alpha will usually be low. Technically speaking, Cronbach's alpha is not a statistical test - it is a coefficient of reliability (or consistency).
Cronbach's alpha can be written as a function of the number of test items AND the average inter-correlation among the items. Below, for conceptual purposes, we show the formula for the standardized Cronbach's alpha:
Here N is equal to the number of items and r-bar is the average inter-item correlation among the items.
All this sounds somewhat difficult to understand. So what does this mean?
If the inter-item correlations are high, then there is evidence that the items are measuring the same underlying construct. This is really what is meant when someone says they have "high" or "good" reliability. They are referring to how well their items measure a single unidimensional latent construct.
Reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered "acceptable" in most Social Science research situations.
Cronbach's alpha can be written as a function of the number of test items AND the average inter-correlation among the items. Below, for conceptual purposes, we show the formula for the standardized Cronbach's alpha:
Here N is equal to the number of items and r-bar is the average inter-item correlation among the items.
All this sounds somewhat difficult to understand. So what does this mean?
If the inter-item correlations are high, then there is evidence that the items are measuring the same underlying construct. This is really what is meant when someone says they have "high" or "good" reliability. They are referring to how well their items measure a single unidimensional latent construct.
Reliability coefficient of .70 or higher is considered "acceptable" in most Social Science research situations.
Monday, December 3, 2007
REFLECTIONS ON SESSION 3
Summary of learning
We learnt about the different researchers who contributed to the knowledge we have today about learning environments and how the LE can be assessed - Lewin, Murray, Leary, Walberg, Moos, Fisher and Fraser.
If we want to create an effective learning environment, we need to understand the factors that influence the environment. There are basically two factors - the pupils' needs and the environment (presses) that affects the expression of these needs.
One of the earliest researchers, Lewin, recognised that human behaviour depends on the person and the environment. Murray went a little more in-depth and said that "person" referred to personal needs that needed to be met if the appropriate behaviour is to be exhibited. He came up with a list of 27 needs, of which he focussed on 3 - Power, Affiliation and Achievement. Murray described the environment press as the external situation that supports or hinders the realization of the personal needs. Based on these basic principles, the other researchers determined what they felt were the personal needs that they considered important and should be addressed and crafted validated instruments for measuring various types of learning environments.
Assessment of this LE can be done in 2 ways. If the LE is assessed by the learners themselves, it is called beta press. If the LE is assessed by a detached /outside observer, it called the alpha press.
The inter-relationship of the learning environment and the assessment mode (the inter-relationship between Lewinina's formula and Murray's needs-press model) can be seen in the model shown to us by Dr Quek.
The instruments used in assessment (questionnaire/surveys) in schools/ classrooms are based on Moo's schema, which categorised the psychosocial human environment into three dimensions :
(1) Relationship dimension (the nature and intensity of personal relationships within the envt)
(2) Personal development dimension (basic directions along which personal growth and self
enhancement tend to occur)
(3) System maintenance and Change dimensions (the extent ot which the environment is
orderly, clear in expectations, maintains control and is responsive to change)
Any instruments used must be valided and be reliable.
Reflections
We must keep in mind that meeting the pupils' needs is very important if we want effective learning to occur. Most times, we focus on the teacher's needs - the easiest way that we can desseminate information in the shortest time possible - and not on how the pupils need to learn and that information is not the end goal. We are focussed in drilling so pupils can get good grades and not in cultivating in them a love for learning. Teaching in the way that meets pupils' needs is time consuming and requires a lot of preparation on the teacher's part. This is why collaboration is crucial. There must be an acceptance that initially a lot of time will need to be invested in order to prepare engaging and learner-centred lessons. However, not all lessons need be learner-centred. The teacher-centred lesson and drilling also has an important part to play.
Meeting pupils' needs is not just having engaging lessons but also building a relationship with the pupils. This means having meaningful conversations with the pupils and interacting with them outside the classroom. It means making the pupils feel that he/she is important and not feel like an unknown "seed" lost among the crowd. A teacher who creates a safe and secure environment will be able to connect with her students emotionally. That is the first step in creating an good learning environment.
I found the series of videos very interesting. We know that we should use a variety of teahcing methodologies to make lessons interesting and as well as to cater to different pupil learning styles. We ourselves have used (effectively or not) these various methodologies. However, actually seeing how the same lesson was taught by the same teacher to the same students using different methodologies really had an impact on me - especially since I am a Biology teacher and actually understood the content of the subject. It really inpsired me to make an effort to try to make my lessons more interesting by trying these different styles.
We learnt about the different researchers who contributed to the knowledge we have today about learning environments and how the LE can be assessed - Lewin, Murray, Leary, Walberg, Moos, Fisher and Fraser.
If we want to create an effective learning environment, we need to understand the factors that influence the environment. There are basically two factors - the pupils' needs and the environment (presses) that affects the expression of these needs.
One of the earliest researchers, Lewin, recognised that human behaviour depends on the person and the environment. Murray went a little more in-depth and said that "person" referred to personal needs that needed to be met if the appropriate behaviour is to be exhibited. He came up with a list of 27 needs, of which he focussed on 3 - Power, Affiliation and Achievement. Murray described the environment press as the external situation that supports or hinders the realization of the personal needs. Based on these basic principles, the other researchers determined what they felt were the personal needs that they considered important and should be addressed and crafted validated instruments for measuring various types of learning environments.
Assessment of this LE can be done in 2 ways. If the LE is assessed by the learners themselves, it is called beta press. If the LE is assessed by a detached /outside observer, it called the alpha press.
The inter-relationship of the learning environment and the assessment mode (the inter-relationship between Lewinina's formula and Murray's needs-press model) can be seen in the model shown to us by Dr Quek.
The instruments used in assessment (questionnaire/surveys) in schools/ classrooms are based on Moo's schema, which categorised the psychosocial human environment into three dimensions :
(1) Relationship dimension (the nature and intensity of personal relationships within the envt)
(2) Personal development dimension (basic directions along which personal growth and self
enhancement tend to occur)
(3) System maintenance and Change dimensions (the extent ot which the environment is
orderly, clear in expectations, maintains control and is responsive to change)
Any instruments used must be valided and be reliable.
Reflections
We must keep in mind that meeting the pupils' needs is very important if we want effective learning to occur. Most times, we focus on the teacher's needs - the easiest way that we can desseminate information in the shortest time possible - and not on how the pupils need to learn and that information is not the end goal. We are focussed in drilling so pupils can get good grades and not in cultivating in them a love for learning. Teaching in the way that meets pupils' needs is time consuming and requires a lot of preparation on the teacher's part. This is why collaboration is crucial. There must be an acceptance that initially a lot of time will need to be invested in order to prepare engaging and learner-centred lessons. However, not all lessons need be learner-centred. The teacher-centred lesson and drilling also has an important part to play.
Meeting pupils' needs is not just having engaging lessons but also building a relationship with the pupils. This means having meaningful conversations with the pupils and interacting with them outside the classroom. It means making the pupils feel that he/she is important and not feel like an unknown "seed" lost among the crowd. A teacher who creates a safe and secure environment will be able to connect with her students emotionally. That is the first step in creating an good learning environment.
I found the series of videos very interesting. We know that we should use a variety of teahcing methodologies to make lessons interesting and as well as to cater to different pupil learning styles. We ourselves have used (effectively or not) these various methodologies. However, actually seeing how the same lesson was taught by the same teacher to the same students using different methodologies really had an impact on me - especially since I am a Biology teacher and actually understood the content of the subject. It really inpsired me to make an effort to try to make my lessons more interesting by trying these different styles.
Flexible Learning Environments
http://community.flexiblelearning.net.au/ProfessionalDevelopment/content/article_6878.htm
What are some different educational strategies that I could use in flexible learning?Adopting a flexible learning approach doesn't mean changing everything about your approach to teaching and learning. Many current practices can be part of a flexible approach. Educational approaches and strategies that contribute to flexible learning include:
Workplace training
Community classes
Study centres
Recognition of Prior Learning
Alternative learning pathways to various levels of accreditation
Self-paced and self-access study
Work-based projects
Mentored learning
Teleconferencing
Video conferencing
Using a range of learning activities (role play, simulation, reading, listening, presentations, group work, discussion, out-of-class projects etc)
Student support services
Using a range of resource types (print-based, web-based, multi-media)
Flexible learning can be viewed as an incentive to reflect on teaching and learning environments, and develop new ways to engage with students. Flexible learning is not a goal in itself; the goal is to improve the learning experience and the learning outcomes. Flexible learning is a method by which educational goals can be achieved. This means that the decision to implement particular flexible learning strategies should be informed by educational values and goals and by specific educational contexts
Why use flexible learning?Recognition of the need for and value of a flexible learning approach has been a response to a number of factors. As higher education has become more widely accessible it has needed to cater for a more diverse range of students. There has also been greater recognition of individual differences in preferred learning styes, cultural differences and gender differences, and a greater understanding of how these differences can be catered for in educational programs.
A demand for more flexible approaches to education and training has also emerged from the changing social context of education and the diverse needs of employers. Flexible learning is seen as a mechanism for making learning more contextualised than classroom based learning alone. The increasing pace of social change and the consequent focus on lifelong learning are further factors.
What are the main Features of Flexible Learning?
Learner centred Underlying the practice of flexible learning is an educational philosophy that puts the learner at the centre of the learning experience. The aim of a flexible learning approach is to respond to the diverse needs of learners. Constructivist learning theories Related to this learner-centred philosophy is a view of learning as being an active and interactive process that fosters independent learning rather than a passive learning experience. Learners are engaged in a process of guided discovery and exploration that involves using what they know to learn more about what they are interested in. Learning strategies such as contextualised or situated learning, collaborative learning, team work, project-based or activity based learning, and problem based learning facilitate a process where learners construct meaning to make new knowledge relevant to them. Flexible learning approaches support such a constructivist approach to teaching and learning by offering choices in learning strategies, and access to a wide range of resources.
What are some different educational strategies that I could use in flexible learning?Adopting a flexible learning approach doesn't mean changing everything about your approach to teaching and learning. Many current practices can be part of a flexible approach. Educational approaches and strategies that contribute to flexible learning include:
Workplace training
Community classes
Study centres
Recognition of Prior Learning
Alternative learning pathways to various levels of accreditation
Self-paced and self-access study
Work-based projects
Mentored learning
Teleconferencing
Video conferencing
Using a range of learning activities (role play, simulation, reading, listening, presentations, group work, discussion, out-of-class projects etc)
Student support services
Using a range of resource types (print-based, web-based, multi-media)
Flexible learning can be viewed as an incentive to reflect on teaching and learning environments, and develop new ways to engage with students. Flexible learning is not a goal in itself; the goal is to improve the learning experience and the learning outcomes. Flexible learning is a method by which educational goals can be achieved. This means that the decision to implement particular flexible learning strategies should be informed by educational values and goals and by specific educational contexts
Why use flexible learning?Recognition of the need for and value of a flexible learning approach has been a response to a number of factors. As higher education has become more widely accessible it has needed to cater for a more diverse range of students. There has also been greater recognition of individual differences in preferred learning styes, cultural differences and gender differences, and a greater understanding of how these differences can be catered for in educational programs.
A demand for more flexible approaches to education and training has also emerged from the changing social context of education and the diverse needs of employers. Flexible learning is seen as a mechanism for making learning more contextualised than classroom based learning alone. The increasing pace of social change and the consequent focus on lifelong learning are further factors.
What are the main Features of Flexible Learning?
Learner centred Underlying the practice of flexible learning is an educational philosophy that puts the learner at the centre of the learning experience. The aim of a flexible learning approach is to respond to the diverse needs of learners. Constructivist learning theories Related to this learner-centred philosophy is a view of learning as being an active and interactive process that fosters independent learning rather than a passive learning experience. Learners are engaged in a process of guided discovery and exploration that involves using what they know to learn more about what they are interested in. Learning strategies such as contextualised or situated learning, collaborative learning, team work, project-based or activity based learning, and problem based learning facilitate a process where learners construct meaning to make new knowledge relevant to them. Flexible learning approaches support such a constructivist approach to teaching and learning by offering choices in learning strategies, and access to a wide range of resources.
Henry A. Murray
Henry A. Murray (1893 - 1988)
American psychologist who developed a theory of human personality based on an individual's inborn needs and his relationship with the physical and social environment.
http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/murray.html
Psychogenic Needs
Although considered a trait theorist, Murray's medical background, combined with his analytical training give a unique flair to his research and writing. This is probably most evident in his development of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a personality test designed to determine personality themes as well as unconscious motivation.
He was focused on basic needs in personality which he called psychogenic needs. He believed these needs were largely at the unconscious level. After researching this area, he narrowed these needs down to 27, although the list and names vary depending on the time frame and the author.
Murray's Psychogenic Needs
Psychogenic Need
Description of Need
Abasement
To surrender and accept punishment
Achievement
To overcome obstacles and succeed
Acquisition
(Conservance)
To obtain possessions
Affiliation
To make associations and friendships
Aggression
To injure others
Autonomy
To resist others and stand strong
Blameavoidance
To avoid blame and obey the rules
Construction
To build or create
Contrariance
To be unique
Counteraction
To defend honor
Defendance
To justify actions
Deference
To follow a superior, to serve
Dominance
(Power)
To control and lead others
Exhibition
To attract attention
Exposition
To provide information, educate
Harmavoidance
To avoid pain
Infavoidance
To avoid failure, shame, or to conceal a weakness
Nurturance
To protect the helpless
Order
To arrange, organize, and be precise
Play
To relieve tension, have fun, or relax
Recognition
To gain approval and social status
Rejection
To exclude another
Sentience
To enjoy sensuous impressions
Sex
(Erotic)
To form and enjoy an erotic relationship
Similance
To empathize
Succorance
To seek protection or sympathy
Understanding
(Cognizance)
To analyze and experience, to seek knowledge
Murray contended that environmental forces played a significant role in the exhibition of the psychogenic needs. He called the forces "press," referring to the pressure they put on us that forces us to act. He further argued for a difference between the real environmental forces, alpha press, and those that are merely perceived, beta press.
The 27 needs and the forces that press them have stood up to research. Three of these, especially, have been the focus of study: the need for Power, Affiliation, and Achievement.
Power, Affiliation, and Achievement
Three of Murray's Psychogenic Needs have been the focus of considerable research: The Need for Power (nPow), Affiliation (nAff) and Achievement (nAch).
The need for Power refers to the desire or need to impact other people, to control or be in a position of influence. Careers that involve these aspects are better suited for high nPow people, such as teachers, psychologists, journalists, and supervisors. They don't necessarily make the best leaders though. Research has found that those with high nPow are more likely to rate an employee higher if that employee has a tendency to schmooz or flatter the subject where those with low or moderate nPow rate employees the same. In this sense, those with high nPow would do well if they also had traits of self-control and objectivity.
The need for affiliation has a long history of research, and studies show that those with a high nAff often have a larger social circle. They spend more time interacting with other such as talking on the phone and writing letters, and they are more likely to be members of social groups or clubs. Those with high nAff are also more likely to get lonely than those low in nAff, so their need for affiliation may be related to their sense of self and their desire for external stimulation.
Those with a high need for achievement (nAch) demonstrate a consistent concern about meeting obligations and accomplishing tasks. They are, however, more focused on internal motivation rather than external rewards. For example, those high in nAch are more likely to value intelligence and personal achievement over recognition and praise.
There are also cultural and gender differences among these three needs. For example, the United States is higher on ratings of nAch than other countries whose focus is more on relationships and nAff. Men and women also demonstrate their needs in different manners. Men with high nPow tend to be more risk takers and act out more readily while women tend to be more active in volunteer activities.
Combined with other personality aspects of traits, such as introversion/extroversion, the needs may also show themselves in very different manners. Introverts may demonstrate their high nAff through small groups and intellectual pursuits, while extroverts evidence this same need through large gatherings and louder parties. However they come out, these three needs have shown a consistent pattern in research, perhaps even more so related to humanistic theory than in trait theory itself.
http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/traits/PersonalityTraitsNeedsHenryMurray.html
Needs As Personality : Henry Murray
Henry Murray (1893 - 1988) was active in developing a theory of motivation throughout the 1930s, 40s, 50s and 60s. He believed that a need is a
potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances… It is a noun which stands for the fact that a certain trend is apt to recur.(Murray, et al. 1938, p. 124).
A major assumption of Murray’s theory was that behaviour is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium. In other words we have a LACK of something and this drives us. We are dissatisfied and we desire something.
Murray classified needs as being either:
Primary needs (which are biologically based): food, water, air, sex, avoidance of pain
Secondary needs (which either derive from our biological needs or are inherent in our psychological nature):
achievement, recognition, acquisition
dominance, aggression, autonomy
affiliation, rejection
nurturance, play, cognizance (asking questions of others)
Murray believed that stronger needs are expressed more often over time and lead to more intense behaviour.
The main contribution from Murray’s was that he understand personality as being driven by the secondary needs: Achievement, Dominance, Affiliation and Nurturance. The extent to which each of these needs was felt by an individual shaped their personality and behavior.
Since the 60s and 70s the main needs studies have examined Achievement, Power, Affiliation and Intimacy.
For example, the need for achievement (or Achievement Motivation) was studied extensively by David McLelland in the 70s, and is the single most researched need. Achievement motivation refers to the desire to do things well, overcome obstacles, to do things better. A person high in achievement motivation tends to choose more difficult tasks than a person low in achievement motivation, because they want to find out more about their ability to achieve.
The need for power was studied intensely by David Winter in the 70s. The need for power is the desire to have dominance, impact on others, prestige, position, and influence over others. Those who have a need for power are often concerned about controlling the image of themselves that is portrayed to others. If the need for power can be combined with taking on responsibility, then "acceptable" displays of power can be experienced.
The need for affiliation has been studied by McAdam in the 80s. The need for affiliation refers to the desire to desire to spend time with other people. It can be more useful to look at subcomponents such as social comparison, emotional support, positive stimulation, and attention from others.
The need for intimacy is the desire to experience warm, close, and communicative exchanges with another person. Ultimately, it is the desire to merge self with another. The need for intimacy correlates .58 (medium correlation) with the need for affiliation, but focuses more on one to one interactions, particularly self-disclosure and listening.Murray’s Needs theory is sometime studied as part of the trait perspective as “needs” are seen as akin to traits. But probably more often, you’ll see Needs’ theory studied within the psychoanalytic perspective as it is seen as a DRIVE theory of personality. We’ll return to this when you look at the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in the psychoanalytic section of the course. The TAT was derived from Murray’s Needs theory.
http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Thematic-Apperception-Test.html
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), is a widely used projective measure of personality. Historically, the Thematic Apperception Test or TAT has been amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught projective psychological tests. It taps a subject's unconscious to reveal repressed aspects of personality, motives and needs for achievement, power and intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.
American psychologist who developed a theory of human personality based on an individual's inborn needs and his relationship with the physical and social environment.
http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/murray.html
Psychogenic Needs
Although considered a trait theorist, Murray's medical background, combined with his analytical training give a unique flair to his research and writing. This is probably most evident in his development of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), a personality test designed to determine personality themes as well as unconscious motivation.
He was focused on basic needs in personality which he called psychogenic needs. He believed these needs were largely at the unconscious level. After researching this area, he narrowed these needs down to 27, although the list and names vary depending on the time frame and the author.
Murray's Psychogenic Needs
Psychogenic Need
Description of Need
Abasement
To surrender and accept punishment
Achievement
To overcome obstacles and succeed
Acquisition
(Conservance)
To obtain possessions
Affiliation
To make associations and friendships
Aggression
To injure others
Autonomy
To resist others and stand strong
Blameavoidance
To avoid blame and obey the rules
Construction
To build or create
Contrariance
To be unique
Counteraction
To defend honor
Defendance
To justify actions
Deference
To follow a superior, to serve
Dominance
(Power)
To control and lead others
Exhibition
To attract attention
Exposition
To provide information, educate
Harmavoidance
To avoid pain
Infavoidance
To avoid failure, shame, or to conceal a weakness
Nurturance
To protect the helpless
Order
To arrange, organize, and be precise
Play
To relieve tension, have fun, or relax
Recognition
To gain approval and social status
Rejection
To exclude another
Sentience
To enjoy sensuous impressions
Sex
(Erotic)
To form and enjoy an erotic relationship
Similance
To empathize
Succorance
To seek protection or sympathy
Understanding
(Cognizance)
To analyze and experience, to seek knowledge
Murray contended that environmental forces played a significant role in the exhibition of the psychogenic needs. He called the forces "press," referring to the pressure they put on us that forces us to act. He further argued for a difference between the real environmental forces, alpha press, and those that are merely perceived, beta press.
The 27 needs and the forces that press them have stood up to research. Three of these, especially, have been the focus of study: the need for Power, Affiliation, and Achievement.
Power, Affiliation, and Achievement
Three of Murray's Psychogenic Needs have been the focus of considerable research: The Need for Power (nPow), Affiliation (nAff) and Achievement (nAch).
The need for Power refers to the desire or need to impact other people, to control or be in a position of influence. Careers that involve these aspects are better suited for high nPow people, such as teachers, psychologists, journalists, and supervisors. They don't necessarily make the best leaders though. Research has found that those with high nPow are more likely to rate an employee higher if that employee has a tendency to schmooz or flatter the subject where those with low or moderate nPow rate employees the same. In this sense, those with high nPow would do well if they also had traits of self-control and objectivity.
The need for affiliation has a long history of research, and studies show that those with a high nAff often have a larger social circle. They spend more time interacting with other such as talking on the phone and writing letters, and they are more likely to be members of social groups or clubs. Those with high nAff are also more likely to get lonely than those low in nAff, so their need for affiliation may be related to their sense of self and their desire for external stimulation.
Those with a high need for achievement (nAch) demonstrate a consistent concern about meeting obligations and accomplishing tasks. They are, however, more focused on internal motivation rather than external rewards. For example, those high in nAch are more likely to value intelligence and personal achievement over recognition and praise.
There are also cultural and gender differences among these three needs. For example, the United States is higher on ratings of nAch than other countries whose focus is more on relationships and nAff. Men and women also demonstrate their needs in different manners. Men with high nPow tend to be more risk takers and act out more readily while women tend to be more active in volunteer activities.
Combined with other personality aspects of traits, such as introversion/extroversion, the needs may also show themselves in very different manners. Introverts may demonstrate their high nAff through small groups and intellectual pursuits, while extroverts evidence this same need through large gatherings and louder parties. However they come out, these three needs have shown a consistent pattern in research, perhaps even more so related to humanistic theory than in trait theory itself.
http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/traits/PersonalityTraitsNeedsHenryMurray.html
Needs As Personality : Henry Murray
Henry Murray (1893 - 1988) was active in developing a theory of motivation throughout the 1930s, 40s, 50s and 60s. He believed that a need is a
potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances… It is a noun which stands for the fact that a certain trend is apt to recur.(Murray, et al. 1938, p. 124).
A major assumption of Murray’s theory was that behaviour is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium. In other words we have a LACK of something and this drives us. We are dissatisfied and we desire something.
Murray classified needs as being either:
Primary needs (which are biologically based): food, water, air, sex, avoidance of pain
Secondary needs (which either derive from our biological needs or are inherent in our psychological nature):
achievement, recognition, acquisition
dominance, aggression, autonomy
affiliation, rejection
nurturance, play, cognizance (asking questions of others)
Murray believed that stronger needs are expressed more often over time and lead to more intense behaviour.
The main contribution from Murray’s was that he understand personality as being driven by the secondary needs: Achievement, Dominance, Affiliation and Nurturance. The extent to which each of these needs was felt by an individual shaped their personality and behavior.
Since the 60s and 70s the main needs studies have examined Achievement, Power, Affiliation and Intimacy.
For example, the need for achievement (or Achievement Motivation) was studied extensively by David McLelland in the 70s, and is the single most researched need. Achievement motivation refers to the desire to do things well, overcome obstacles, to do things better. A person high in achievement motivation tends to choose more difficult tasks than a person low in achievement motivation, because they want to find out more about their ability to achieve.
The need for power was studied intensely by David Winter in the 70s. The need for power is the desire to have dominance, impact on others, prestige, position, and influence over others. Those who have a need for power are often concerned about controlling the image of themselves that is portrayed to others. If the need for power can be combined with taking on responsibility, then "acceptable" displays of power can be experienced.
The need for affiliation has been studied by McAdam in the 80s. The need for affiliation refers to the desire to desire to spend time with other people. It can be more useful to look at subcomponents such as social comparison, emotional support, positive stimulation, and attention from others.
The need for intimacy is the desire to experience warm, close, and communicative exchanges with another person. Ultimately, it is the desire to merge self with another. The need for intimacy correlates .58 (medium correlation) with the need for affiliation, but focuses more on one to one interactions, particularly self-disclosure and listening.Murray’s Needs theory is sometime studied as part of the trait perspective as “needs” are seen as akin to traits. But probably more often, you’ll see Needs’ theory studied within the psychoanalytic perspective as it is seen as a DRIVE theory of personality. We’ll return to this when you look at the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in the psychoanalytic section of the course. The TAT was derived from Murray’s Needs theory.
http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Thematic-Apperception-Test.html
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), is a widely used projective measure of personality. Historically, the Thematic Apperception Test or TAT has been amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught projective psychological tests. It taps a subject's unconscious to reveal repressed aspects of personality, motives and needs for achievement, power and intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.
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